Welding Repair of Motor Grader Frame {0679, 7051} Caterpillar

Motor Grader

All

Introduction

Table 1

Revision	Summary of Changes in REHS1806
05	Added safety information
04	Changed individual effectivity to group effectivity and added Canceled Part Numbers and Replaced Part Numbers section
03	Added Models 140M, 140M2, 160M, 160M2

© 2016 Caterpillar All Rights Reserved. This guideline is for the use of Cat dealers only. Unauthorized use of this document or the proprietary processes therein without permission may be violation of intellectual property law.

Information contained in this document is considered Caterpillar: Confidential Yellow.

This Reuse and Salvage Guideline contains the necessary information to allow a dealer to establish a parts reusability program. Reuse and salvage information enables Caterpillar dealers and customers to benefit from cost reductions. Every effort has been made to provide the most current information that is known to Caterpillar. Continuing improvement and advancement of product design might have caused changes to your product which are not included in this publication. This Reuse and Salvage Guideline must be used with the latest technical information that is available from Caterpillar.

For technical questions when using this document, work with your Dealer Technical Communicator (TC).

To report suspected errors, inaccuracies, or suggestions regarding the document, submit a form for feedback in the Service Information System (SIS Web) interface.

Canceled Part Numbers and Replaced Part Numbers

This document may include canceled part numbers and replaced part numbers. Use NPR on SIS for information about canceled part numbers and replaced part numbers. NPR will provide the current part numbers for replaced parts.

Important Safety Information

Illustration 1	g02139237

Follow all safety warnings. Most accidents that involve product operation, maintenance, or repair are caused by failure to observe safety warnings. An accident can often be avoided by recognizing potentially hazardous situations before an accident occurs. Personnel must be properly trained to perform maintenance, repair, or operate any machine. Safety precautions and warnings are provided this instruction and on Caterpillar products. These warnings should be observed before performing any procedures. Caterpillar cannot anticipate every possible circumstance that might involve a potential hazard. The warnings in this publication and on the product are not all inclusive.

The hazards are identified by the “Safety Alert Symbol” which is followed by a “Signal Word” such as “DANGER”, “WARNING” or “CAUTION”. The “WARNING” Safety Alert Symbol is shown in Illustration 2.

Illustration 2	g00008666

This safety alert symbol means:

Pay Attention!

Become Alert!

Your Safety is Involved.

The message that appears under the safety alert symbol explains the hazard.

Operations that may cause product damage are identified by "NOTICE" labels on the product and in this publication.

Caterpillar cannot anticipate every possible circumstance that might involve a potential hazard. The safety information in this document and the safety information on the machine are not all inclusive. Determine that the tools, procedures, work methods, and operating techniques are safe. Determine that the operation, lubrication, maintenance, and repair procedures will not damage the machine. Also, determine that the operation, lubrication, maintenance, and repair procedures will not make the machine unsafe.

The information, the specifications, and the illustrations that exist in this guideline are based on information which was available at the time of publication. The specifications, torques, pressures, measurements, adjustments, illustrations, and other items can change at any time. These changes can affect the service that is given to the product. Obtain the complete, most current information before you start any job. Caterpillar dealers can supply the most current information.

Summary

The following procedure covers repair motor grader frame.

Service Letters and Technical Information Bulletins

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NOTICE
The most recent Service Letters and Technical Information Bulletins that are related to this component shall be reviewed before beginning work. Often service advisories and service letters contain upgrades in repair procedures, parts, and safety information that pertain to the parts or components being repaired.

Tooling and Equipment

Table 2

Required Tooling and Equipment
Part Number	Description	Qty
1U-5519	Disc Pad Holder	As needed
1U-5516	Discs (Coarse)	As needed
1U-9918	Wire Brush	1
4C-3770	7" Grinding Wheel	As needed
4C-3781	Spiraband (Sanding Drum) 60 Grit	As needed
4C-3785	1/4" Mandrel	As needed
4C-4200	High Gloss Yellow Paint	As needed
4C-4804	Penetrant	1
4C-4805	Developer	1
4C-8515	Flapper Wheel (2" x 1" 120 grit)	As needed
4C-8516	Flapper Wheel (2" x 1" 180 grit)	As needed
4C-8521	Wheel Adapter	1
4C-9616	Weld Blanket	As needed
8S-2257	Eye Loupe	1
8T-7765	Surface Reconditioning Pad	1
222-3071	Angle Grinder	As needed
222-3074	Die Grinder	As needed
222-3076	Right Angle Die Grinder	1
237-5181	Respirator	1
251-0030	Calibrated Infrared Thermometer	1
254-5329	Flapper Wheel (2" x 1" 180 grit)	As needed
254-5330	Flapper Wheel (2" x 1" 240 grit)	As needed
254-5331	Abrasive Wheel 80 Grit	As needed
254-5335	Abrasive Wheel 240 Grit	As needed
263-7184	Crack Detection Kit	1
288-4209	Paper Towel	As needed
459-0184	UV Lamp Kit	1
-	Welding Electrodes/Filler Metals	As needed

Prepare the Area for Inspection & Welding

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Personal injury can result when using cleaner solvents. To help prevent personal injury, follow the instructions and warnings on the cleaner solvent container before using.

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Personal injury can result from air pressure. Personal injury can result without following proper procedure. When using pressure air, wear a protective face shield and protective clothing. Maximum air pressure at the nozzle must be less than 205 kPa (30 psi) for cleaning purposes.

Illustration 3	g03721203
Typical burr removal tooling. (A) Right Angle Die Grinder (B) Die Grinder (C) ( D) ( E) Conditioning Discs, Disc Pad Holder, and Threaded Shaft (F) ( G) Flapper Wheels

• Clean all surfaces for inspection before you inspect the part. Make sure that you remove all debris, paint, and oil.

• When you move parts that require cleaning, always use a proper lifting device. This device must protect the part from damage. For the safety of the operator, all lifting devices must be inspected before use.

• During cleaning, do not damage machined surfaces.

• Use pressurized air to dry parts.

• If the component cannot be inspected immediately after cleaning, put hydraulic oil on all machined surfaces to prevent rust or corrosion. Carefully store the parts in a clean container.

• Use appropriate thread taps to chase all threaded holes.

Clean the area that will be welded. Make sure that the substances that follow are removed from the area that will be welded.

• Oil

• Grease

• Paint

• Dirt

Weld Specifications and Qualifications

Note: Personal breathing protection should be worn by the personnel that are welding. Personal breathing protection will prevent fumes from entering the lungs of the person that is welding. Use a 237-5181 Respirator for breathing protection.

Qualifications

Welders must be qualified for fillet welding and groove welding. The welders should be qualified in the use of the welding processes that follow: Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) and Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW). Refer to "American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/American Welding Society (AWS) Specification D1.1, or Specification D14.3" for information that regards the qualifications for the processes that follow: SMAW process and FCAW process. The welders must have used the process at some time within the last 6 months. The welders must complete the process of certification if the welders have not used the welding processes for 6 months.

Specifications

Low Hydrogen Electrodes for the SMAW Process

The tables that follow list the mechanical properties of welds that are deposited by low hydrogen electrodes.

Table 3

Mechanical Properties of Welds from Low Hydrogen Electrodes That Are Classified as "ANSI/AWS A5.1 E7018"
Tensile Strength	480 MPa (69618 psi)
Yield Strength	400 MPa (58015 psi)
Elongation	22%
Impact Toughness	27 J @ -18 °C (20 ft lb @ -20 °F)

Low hydrogen electrodes must be stored in an electrode oven at 120 °C (250 °F). If low hydrogen electrodes get damp, scrap the low hydrogen electrodes or recondition the low hydrogen electrodes to the manufacturers specifications.

The table that follows shows setting for the welding current for the electrode diameter.

Table 4

Welding Current for Low Hydrogen Electrodes
Diameter	Amperage Rating
3.20 mm (0.126 inch)	70-140
4.00 mm (0.157 inch)	110-180
4.80 mm (0.189 inch)	190-270

Use a polarity setting of DC reverse polarity. Remove the slag after each pass of the welding electrode. The width of the weld should not exceed two times the electrode diameter.

Flux Cored Welding Electrode for the FCAW Process

As an alternative process, use the Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) with E71T-1 H8 (ANSI/A5.20) welding electrode and the manufactures shielding gases that are specified for inside welding. The H8 implies that the electrode is designed to provide less than 8 ml/100 g of diffusible hydrogen in the weld deposit. The weld that is deposited by the flux cored welding electrode will have the following minimum mechanical properties:

The table that follows lists the mechanical properties of welds that are deposited by the flux cored welding electrode.

Table 5

Mechanical Properties from Flux Cored Welding Electrode That Is Classified as "ANSI/AWS A5.20 E71T-1"(1)
Tensile Strength	480 MPa (69618 psi)
Yield Strength	400 MPa (58015 psi)
Elongation	22%
Impact Toughness	27 J @ -18 °C (20 ft lb @ -20 °F)

(1)	The properties that are listed are for three passes of the welding electrode.

The table that follows shows setting for the welding current for the flux cored welding electrode that has a diameter of 1.30 mm (0.051 inch).

Table 6

Welding Current for Flux Cored Welding Electrode That Is Classified as "ANSI/AWS A5.20 E71T-1"
Wire Feed Rate	Voltage	Amperage
Minimum 5080 mm (200 inch) Per Minute	24	210
Optimum 6985 mm (275 inch) Per Minute	28	250
Maximum 8255 mm (325 inch) Per Minute	29	300

Note: The settings for the welding current can vary due to the position of the weld. Also, the settings for the welding current can vary with the manufacturer of the welding electrode.

Use a polarity setting of DC reverse polarity. Remove the slag after each pass of the welding electrode. The fast freezing characteristics of flux cored welding electrode increases the possibility of evolving gas that is trapped in the weld. Control the size of the weld to reduce the possibility of evolving gas that is trapped in the weld. The volume of the fillet weld should not exceed 8.00 mm (0.315 inch).

Cutting Requirements

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Personal injury can result from flame cutting or welding on painted areas. The effect of gasses from burned paint is a hazard to the person doing the cutting or welding. Do not flame cut or weld on painted areas.

Removal of the components is to be accomplished using air arc (CAC-A) or OXY Fuel Cutting Torch. Safe practices must be followed which include AWS "C5.3-8.2": “Recommended Practices for Air Carbon Arc Gouging” and ANSI "Z49.1" “Safety in Welding and Cutting”.

Temperature Requirements

When the base metal temperature is below 0.0° C (32° F), the base metal shall be preheated to at least 15.6° C (60° F) (unless otherwise specified) and this minimum temperature maintained during cutting or welding. Interpass temperature shall not exceed 204.4° C (400° F).

Preheat and interpass temperature shall be measured at a distance equal to at least the thickness of the thinnest member but not less than 76.2 mm (3.00 inch) in all directions for the point of welding. Interpass temperature is best measured with temperature sticks. Preheat temperature for heavy section areas 25.0 mm (1.00 inch) thick and above is to be 65.6° C (150° F).

Attach the welding ground cable directly to the base metal. Protect machined surfaces from sparks. Protect the machined surfaces from the weld splatter.

Note: All welding to be done in the flat position to ensure maximum penetration and weld quality. Repositioning the axle housing may be necessary.

Note: Use the manufacturers recommended welding electrode parameter.

Illustration 4	g02028746

Illustration 5	g02065217

Illustration 6	g02028747
Section A-A

1. Use E7018 (AWS 5.5) electrodes for the weld. Use direct current electrode positive polarity setting and remove the slag after every pass.

2. Protect all machined surfaces from welding sparks. Also, protect all machined surfaces from any weld splatter.

3. Remove all rust, oil, grease, paint, and dirt from the area that is being repaired.

4. Use a carbon arc gouge to remove the full depth of the crack. Extend the gouge 50.0 mm (1.97 inch) beyond the crack to ensure that the crack is removed.

   Note: Repeat step 4 on the side of the frame if a crack is present.

5. Close the crack in the frame as much as possible by pulling the frame back to the original position.

   Note: If necessary, heat the area to a maximum temperature of 260 °C (500 °F).

6. Clean all areas for welding and prepare all areas for welding.

7. If area (B) was cracked, weld area (B) first with a vertical up weld. Remove the slag after each pass.

8. Weld area (A) with a fillet weld. Each weld pass volume should equal 6.0 mm (0.24 inch). Remove the slag after each pass. Make the final weld pass flush with scab plate (C).

9. Use ASTM A36 or SAE 1018 steel to make scab plate (C). Refer to illustration 6. The scab plate must extend 152.4 mm (6.00 inch) past the crack on both sides.

10. Refer to section (A-A) to position scab plate (C). Tack weld the scab plate.

11. Fillet weld each side of the scab plate with a 10.0 mm (0.39 inch) tail weld. Each tail weld should be blended with the top plate.

12. Clean the repaired area. Paint the repaired area. Install parts that were removed.

Crack Detection Methods

Crack detection methods or Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) are utilized for examining components for cracks without damaging the component. Visual inspection, Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT), Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT), Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Radiographic Testing and Eddy Current Testing are recommended methods. There may be more than one acceptable crack detection method for the inspection of a given part, though the liquid penetrant is the most versatile. For example, the liquid penetrant method can be used when inspecting smooth machined components such as shafts, gear teeth, and splines, but using the Wet Magnetic Particle Inspection is more accurate. Refer to Table 7 for advantages and disadvantages and Table 8 for standards and requirements for these NDT methods.

Table 7

Crack Inspection Method Advantages vs. Disadvantages
Inspection Method	Advantages	Disadvantages
Visual Surface Inspection (VT)	- Least expensive - Detects most damaging defects - Immediate results - Minimum part preparation	- Limited to surface-only defects - Requires inspectors to have broad knowledge of welding and fabrication in addition to NDT
Liquid Penetrant (PT)	- Inexpensive - Minimal training - Portable - Works on nonmagnetic material	- Least sensitive - Detects surface cracks only - Rough or porous surfaces interfere with test
Dry Magnetic Particle (MT)	- Portable - Fast/Immediate Results - Detects surface and subsurface discontinuities	- Works on magnetic material only - Less sensitive than Wet Magnetic Particle
Wet Magnetic Particle (MT)	- More sensitive than Liquid Penetrant - Detects subsurface as much as 0.13 mm (0.005 inch)	- Requires Power for Light - Works on magnetic parts only - Liquid composition and agitation must be monitored
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)	- Most sensitive - Detects deep material defects - Immediate results - Wide range of materials and thickness can be inspected	- Most expensive - Requires operator training and certification - Surface must be accessible to probe
Eddy Current Testing (ET)	- Surface and near surface flaws detectable - Moderate speed/Immediate results - Sensitive too small discontinuities	- Difficult to interpret - Only for metals - Rough surfaces interfere with test - Surface must be accessible to probe
Radiographic Testing (RT)	- Detects surface and internal flaws - Minimum part preparation - Can inspect hidden areas	- Not for porous materials - Radiation protection needed - Defect able to be detected is limited to 2% of thickness

Table 8

Applicable Crack Detection Standards
Type	Standard	Acceptance Criteria	Recommended Practice	Required Personnel Qualifications
Visual Surface Inspection (VT)	EN-ISO 5817 AWS D1.1	EN-ISO 5817 - Level B AWS D1.1 - Table 6.1	ANSI-ASNT SNT-TC-1A	EN-ISO 9712
Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)	EN-ISO 3452 ASTM E165	EN-ISO 23277 AWS - D1.1	ANSI-ASNT SNT-TC-1A	EN-ISO 9712
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)	EN-ISO 17638 ASTM E709	EN-ISO 23278 - Level 1 AWS D1.1 - Table 6.1	ANSI-ASNT SNT-TC-1A	EN-ISO 9712
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)	EN-ISO 17640 - Level B AWS D1.1	EN-ISO 11666 Technique 2 - Level 2 AWS D1.1 - Class A - Table 6.3	ANSI-ASNT SNT-TC-1A	EN-ISO 9712
Eddy Current Testing (ET)	EN-ISO 15549 ASTM E426	EN-ISO 20807	ANSI-ASNT SNT-TC-1A	EN-ISO 9712
Radiographic Testing (RT)	EN-ISO 5579 ASTM E94	EN-ISO 10657-1	ANSI-ASNT SNT-TC-1A	EN-ISO 9712

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NOTICE
Regardless of which crack detection method is used, it is important that the instructions furnished with the detection equipment are followed closely when checking any component. Failure to do so may cause inaccurate results or may cause injury to the operator and/or surroundings.

Visual Surface Inspection (VT)

Illustration 7	g06085008
Example of Visual Inspection Tools (A) Flashlight or adequate light source (B) Magnifying eye loupe (C) Tape measure or other measuring device (D) Inspection mirror (E) Weld size inspection gauges

Components and welds that are to be inspected using PT, MT, or UT shall first be subject to visual inspection (VT). Visual Inspection is often the most cost-effective inspection method and requires little equipment as seen in Illustration 7. It is suggested that at a minimum personnel performing Visual Inspection are either trained to a company standard or have sufficient experience and knowledge about the components being inspected. It is also suggested that personnel performing visual inspections take some type of eyesight test regularly.

Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)

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Personal injury can result from improper handling of chemicals. Make sure you use all the necessary protective equipment required to do the job. Make sure that you read and understand all directions and hazards described on the labels and material safety data sheet of any chemical that is used. Observe all safety precautions recommended by the chemical manufacturer for handling, storage, and disposal of chemicals.

Materials and Equipment Required

Refer to Tooling and Equipment Table 2 for part numbers.

• Cleaner: Removes dirt before dye application and dissolves the penetrant making possible to wipe the surface clean.

• Penetrant: This solution is highly visible, and will seep into openings at the surface of a part with capillary action.

• Developer: Provides a blotting action, bringing the penetrant out of the discontinuities and providing a contrasting background to increase the visibility of the penetrant indications.

• Wire Brush: Removes dirt and paint.

• Cloth or Wipes: Use with cleaner and for other miscellaneous uses.

Procedure

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Illustration 8	g06087907
Typical example of checking for cracks in the welded areas.

1. Preclean inspection area. Spray on cleaner / remover to loosen any scale, dirt, or any oil. Wipe the area to inspect with a solvent dampened cloth to remove remaining dirt and allow the area to dry. If there is visible crack remove paint using paint remover or wire brush.
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   Illustration 9	g06087912
   Typical example of checking for cracks in the welded areas.

2. Apply penetrant by spraying to the entire area to be examined. Allow 10 to 15 minutes for penetrant to soak. After the penetrant has been allowed to soak, remove the excess penetrant with clean, dry wipe.
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   Illustration 10	g06087914

3. The last traces of penetrant should be removed with the cleaner solvent dampened cloth or wipe. Allow the area to dry thoroughly.
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   Illustration 11	g06087916

4. Before using Developer, ensure that it is mixed thoroughly by shaking can. Hold can approximately 8-12 inches away from part, apply an even, thin layer of developer over the area being inspected. A few thin layers are a better application method than one thick layer.
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   Illustration 12	g06084042
   Typical example of cracks found during a liquid penetrant examination.

5. Allow the developer to dry completely for 10–15 minutes before inspecting for cracks. Defects will show as red lines in white developer background, refer to Illustration 12. Clean the area of application of the developer with solvent cleaner.

Dry Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Materials and Equipment Required

Refer to Tooling and Equipment Table 2 for part numbers.

Illustration 13	g06085930
(A) Indications shown by magnetic particle testing. (B) Typical electromagnetic yoke. (C) Dry powder bulb.

1. Dry magnetic powder shall be of high permeability and low retentively and of suitable sizes and shapes to produce magnetic particle indications. The powder shall be of a color that will provide adequate contrast with the background of the surface being inspected.

2. Dry magnetic particles shall be stored in suitable containers to resist contamination such as moisture, grease, oil, non-magnetic particles such as sand, and excessive heat. Contaminants will manifest in the form of particle color change and particle agglomeration. The degree of contamination will determine further use of the powder.

3. Dry magnetic powder shall be tested in accordance with ASTM E709 Section 18 (Evaluation of System Performance/Sensitivity) when not performing.

4. Equipment should include a "U" shaped electromagnetic yoke made from highly permeable magnetic material, which has a coil wound around the yoke. This coil carries a magnetizing current to impose a localized longitudinal magnetic field into the part. The magnetizing force of the yoke is related to the electromagnetic strength and can be tested by determining the lifting power of a steel plate. The yoke shall have a lifting force of at least 4.5 kg (10 lbs).

5. Check dry powder blower routinely to ensure that the spray is a light, uniform, dust-like coating of the dry magnetic particles. Blower should also have sufficient force to remove excess particles without disturbing those particles that are evidence of indications.

6. All equipment shall be inspected at a minimum of once a year or when accuracy is questionable.

Procedure

1. Ensure surface to be inspected is dry and free from oil, grease, sand, loose rust, mil scale, paint, and other contaminants.

2. Apply the magnetic field using the yoke against the faces and inside diameter of each bore.

3. Simultaneously apply the dry powder using the dry powder blower.

4. Remove excess powder by lightly blowing away the dry particles.

5. Continue around the entire circumference of each bore. Position the yoke twice in each area at 1.57 rad (90°) to ensure that multiple directions of the magnetic field are created.

6. Observe particles and note if any clusters of particles appear revealing an indication.

7. Record the size and shape of any discontinuities or indications found.

Wet Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Materials and Equipment

Refer to Tooling and Equipment Table 2 for part numbers.

Illustration 14	g06085937
(A) Indications shown by magnetic particle testing. (B) Typical electromagnetic yoke. (D) UV Lamp used in wet magnetic particle inspection process.

Illustration 15	g06003178
Pear Shaped Centrifuge Tube

1. Wet magnetic particles are fluorescent and are suspended in a vehicle in a given concentration that will allow application to the test surface by spraying.

2. Concentration:

   1. The concentration of the suspended magnetic particles shall be as specified by the manufacturer and be checked by settling volume measurements.

   2. Concentrations are determined by measuring the settling volume by using an ASTM pear shaped centrifuge tube with a 1 mL (0.034 oz) stem with 0.05 mL (0.0017 oz) 1.0 mL (0.034 oz) divisions, refer to Illustration 15. Before sampling, the suspension shall be thoroughly mixed to assure suspension of all particles, which could have settled. A 100 mL (3.40 oz) sample of the suspension shall be taken and allowed to settle for 30 minutes. The settling volume should be between 0.1 mL (0.0034 oz) and 0.25 mL (0.0085 oz) in a 100 mL (3.40 oz) sample.

   3. Wet magnetic particles may be suspended in a low viscosity oil or conditioned water.

   4. The oil shall have the following characteristics:

      • Low viscosity not to exceed 50 mSt (5.0 cSt) at any temperature at which the vehicle is to be used.

      • Low inherent fluorescence and be non-reactive.

   5. The conditioning agents used in the conditioned water shall have the following characteristics:

      • Impart good wetting characteristics and good dispersion.

      • Minimize foaming and be non-corrosive.

      • Low viscosity shall not exceed a maximum viscosity of 50 mSt (5.0 cSt) at 38° C (100° F).

      • Non-fluorescent, non-reactive, and odorless.

      • Alkalinity shall not exceed a pH of 10.5.

3. Equipment should include a "U" shaped electromagnetic yoke made from highly permeable magnetic material, which has a coil wound around the yoke. This coil carries a magnetizing current to impose a localized longitudinal magnetic field into the part. The magnetizing force of the yoke is related to the electromagnetic strength and can be tested by determining the lifting power of a steel plate. The yoke shall have a lifting force of at least 4.5 kg (10 lbs).

Procedure

1. Ensure surface to be inspected is dry and free from oil, grease, sand, loose rust, mil scale, paint, and any other contaminants.

2. Apply the magnetic field using the yoke against the surface in the area to be inspected.
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   Illustration 16	g03536210

3. For case hardened and ground surfaces:

   • Due to the sensitivity required to locate the grinding cracks, inspection of case hardened and ground surfaces require that the yoke is applied so that the magnetic field is 1.57 rad (90°) to the expected direction of the indications. Also, due to the increased sensitivity resulting when the yoke is energized, the yoke is not moved until the evaluation is completed in the first direction. An AC yoke shall be used. See Illustration 16 for an example of yoke placement.

4. Visually inspect for indications of discontinuities using the proper illumination.

5. Record the size and shape of any discontinuities found.

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Refer to Tooling and Equipment Table 2 for part numbers.

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NOTICE
All personnel involved in ultrasonic examinations shall be qualified to Level 2 in accordance to standards stated in Table 8.

1. Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a method of Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) using short ultrasonic pulse waves (with frequencies from 0.1-15 MHz up to 50 MHz) to detect the thickness of the object. Ultrasonic testing consists of an ultrasound transducer connected to a diagnostic machine and passed over the object being inspected.

2. There are two methods of receiving the ultrasound waveform from the transducer: reflection and attenuation.

   a. Reflection - Ultrasonic pulses exit the transducer and travel throughout the thickness of the material. When the sound waves propagate into an object being tested, the waves return to the transducer when a discontinuity is discovered along the sonic path. These waves continue and reflect from the back surface of the material to project the thickness of the material.

   b. Attenuation - A transmitter sends ultrasound through one surface, and a separate receiver detects the amount that has reached it on another surface after traveling through the medium. Any discontinuities or other conditions within the medium will reduce the amount of sound transmitted, revealing the presence of the imperfections.

Eddy Current Testing

Illustration 17	g06090873
Eddy-current testing

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NOTICE
All personnel involved in Eddy Current examinations shall be qualified to Level 2 in accordance to standards stated in Table 8.

Eddy-current testing (ET) is a Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) method in which eddy-current flow is induced in the test object. Changes in the flow caused by variations in the specimen are reflected in to a nearby coil or coils for subsequent analysis by suitable instrumentation and techniques. Major applications of eddy-current testing are surface inspection and tubing inspections.

Radiographic Testing

Illustration 18	g06090892
Radiographic Testing

All personnel involved in radiographic examinations shall be qualified to Level 2 in accordance to standards stated in Table 8.

Illustration 19	g00008666

This process is dangerous. Only qualified personnel and test equipment should be appointed to perform this type of testing.

Radiographic testing (RT) is a Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) method in which short wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is used to penetrate materials to find hidden discontinuities such as cracks. In radiographic testing, the test object is placed between the radiation source and the film, or x-ray detector. The electromagnetic radiation will penetrate the thickness of the test object and, when all the way through, will project onto the film any indications that have been in the path of the radiation waves.